Precision instruments for microsurgery in neurosurgery, ophthalmology and otology were possible and, in the second half of the 20th century, energy-based instruments were first developed, such as electrocauteries, ultrasound and electric scalpels, surgical tools for endoscopic surgery, and finally, surgical robots. New materiais, such as stainless steel, chrome, titanium and vanadium were available for the manufacturing of these instruments. A veritable explosion of new tools occurred with the hundreds of new surgical procedures which were developed in the 19th century and first decades of the 20th century.
However, it was only with the discovery of anesthesia and surgical asepsis that new surgical instruments were invented to allow the penetration of the inner sanctum, or the previously forbidden body cavities, namely the skull, the thorax and the abdomen. Amputation sets originated in this period, due to the increased severity of war-inflicted wounds by shot, grapnel and cannon. In the Renaissance and post-Renaissance era, new instruments were again invented and designed, in order to accompany the increased audacity of surgeons. Most of these instruments continued to be used in medieval times, albeit with a better manufacturing technique (“General Instrument Sourcebook”, 2006). Bronze Roman surgical instruments found at Pompeii include a scalpel with a steel blade, spring and scissor forceps, a sharp hook, and. It produces a cleaner cut and less tissue trauma, which translates to faster healing and less scar tissue. They usually used forceps, knives, and probes. Obsidian is used in cardiac surgery, as well-crafted obsidian blades have a cutting edge up to five times sharper than high-quality steel surgical scalpels, with the edge of the blade reaching veritable molecular thinness. The Greeks practiced surgery mostly on external parts of the body. They are still very well preserved in several medical museums around the world. They left behind various surgical instruments, including scalpels and chisels made of obsidian. In the Antiquity, surgeons and physicians in Greece and Rome developed many ingenious instruments manufactured from bronze, iron and silver, such as scalpels, lancets, curettes, tweezers, speculae, trephines, forceps, probes, dilators, tubes, surgical knifes, etc.
It is believed that they were used by shamans to release evil spirits and alleviate headaches and head traumas caused by war-inflicted wounds. Then a fifth priest would take an obsidian knife, which is a shiny black volcanic rock. Rough trephines for performing round craniotomies were discovered in neolithic sites in many places. I thought you said there were no human sacrifices. Surgical instruments have been designed and manufactured since the era of pre-history (Bonfils-Roberts, 1972).
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